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.�The�outcome�of�the�story�is�different�from�what�is�expected�by�readers.�The�distance�between�what�happened�and�what�should�have�happened�or�what�is�said�and�what�is�intended�is�irony.�Writers�using�irony�set�up�the�story�by�leading�the�reader�to�expect�one�type�of�finish�through�a�combination�of�circumstances�or�steps�involving�the�principals�of�the�story.�Then�the�reader�is�stunned�by�the�opposite�or�inappropriate�conclusion�of�the�episode.�This�technique�is�used�often�in�writing�short�humorous�items�known�as�brights.Grammatical�and�Typographic�EmphasisSome�writers�make�points�in�their�humor�writing�by�intentionally�overusing�and�abusing�English�grammar�or�typography.�One�such�technique�is�overuse�of�exclamation�marks�(e.g.,�multiple�exclamation�marks�after�a�word�in�the�middle�of�a�sentence�or�a�string�of�typographic�symbols�such�as�"*@!(c)!#$%&!!@"�to�represent�bad�or�strong�language).�Another�is�capitalizing�improper�nouns�(e.g.,�a�term�such�as�Campaign�Trail)�used�in�generic�references�rather�than�specific�contexts.�These�tricks�draw�reader�attention�to�certain�words�and�terms�in�an�extreme�fashion�and�help�place�focus�where�the�writer�wants�it.�Other�humor�writers�intentionally�invent�words�or�new�us�Page�394ages�of�existing�words�when�they�cannot�find�the�right�word�to�express�their�feelings�or�actions�(e.g.,�the�seemingly�endless�different�ways�that�the�characters�in�the�film�"Wayne's�World"�referred�to�what�doctors�commonly�call�"regurgitation").�These�diversions�from�the�ordinary�uses�of�grammar�are�functional�and�help�the�writer�as�he�or�she�tells�the�story.PunsFor�many�centuries,�humor�writers�have�used�puns�for�a�good�laugh�from�readers.�In�recent�years,�it�seems,�puns�have�gained�a�bad�reputation.�It�seems�that�some�writers�(and�readers,�too)�feel�puns�are�categorically�bad.�However,�this�is�not�the�case~�the�use�of�puns�may�be�the�problem.�Much�of�the�value�of�the�pun�is�in�its�use.�A�pun�is�a�writer's�device�that�uses�plays�on�words�to�provide�double�meaning.�One�common�use�of�puns�by�some�contemporary�humorists�is�in�references�to�sex.�No�doubt�you�can�think�of�countless�puns�you�encounter�in�everyday�conversation,�reading,�and�your�own�writing.Logic�and�ConsistencyLogic�is�the�science�of�correct�reasoning�and�valid�thought.�Logic�involves�correct�reasoning�through�induction�or�deduction.�Some�successful�humor�is�based�on�its�internal�logic.�Crazy�behavior�and�absurd�conduct�by�people�make�up�much�of�modern�American�humor.�But�after�everything�else,�the�humorous�story�must�maintain�its�internal�logic.�One�way�to�do�this�is�to�begin�a�story�with�an�absurd�premise�and�keep�that�premise�throughout�the�story�as�it�is�told.�Related�to�that�is�internal�consistency.�Changing�the�focus�in�the�middle�of�a�story�will�often�hurt�it�more�than�help�it.�Wolfe�(1990)�calls�internal�logic�and�consistency�two�of�the�major�building�blocks�of�humor�writing.Other�Humor�Writing�TechniquesThere�are�other�techniques�that�humor�writers�use.�For�example,�Art�Buchwald�likes�to�use�dialogue�in�his�columns,�creating�fictitious�conversations�that�might�have�occurred.�Dave�Barry�also�uses�conversations�frequently.�In�fact,�most�humorists�find�dialogue�to�be�an�essential�device�for�their�writing�and�use�it�often.Washington�Post�humor�writer�Tony�Kornheiser,�who�is�also�an�award�winning�sports�writer�for�the�newspaper,�used�dialog�in�several�places�for�this�recent�column�about�his�eyesight.�Here's�a�sample:Page�395For�some�years�now�my�eyesight�has�been�declining�to�the�point�where�I�am�unable�to�read�anything�in�close�range and�by�''close�range"�I�mean�anything�in�the�same�room�with�me.�I�suffer�from�a�condition�known�as�presbyopia,�an�ophthalmological�term�for�"Willard's�going�to�be�announcing�your�birthday�soon."I�am�still�excellent�at�reading�large�green�overhead�road�signs,�so�you�can�take�me�on�trips.�Sadly,�they�don't�print�the�dosage�instructions�for�Zantac�on�large�green�overhead�road�signs.�So�last�year�my�friend�Nancy�gave�me�a�pair�of�non�prescription�reading�glasses�(referred�to�technically�as�"old�people�glasses")�that�she�had�bought�for�herself�off�a�rack�in�a�drugstore.�They�made�me�look�like�a�member�of�a�bowling�league�in�Akron,�but�at�least�I�could�read�typefaces�smaller�than�TURNPIKE�NEXT�EXIT�1�MI.When�those�glasses�broke�I�went�for�an�eye�exam�to�get�real�glasses.�And�I�was�introduced�to�an�"eyewear�fashion�consultant,"�who�said�she�would�design�glasses�that�would�be�"customized�to�my�face�shape,�coloring�and�lifestyle�needs.""How�would�you�describe�your�face�shape?"�she�asked�me."Like�a�potato,"�I�said.�"Or�possibly�an�eggplant.""How�would�you�describe�your�lifestyle?""I�spend�most�of�my�day�obsessed�with�my�own�tedious�problems,�my�fear�of�failure�and�looming�death,"�I�said.�"You�got�any�glasses�that�will�make�me�look�like�Woody�Allen�in�'Annie�Hall?'�Or�perhaps�somewhat�Norwegian?"I�tried�on�roughly�681�frames.�Amazingly,�no�matter�what�their�shape�or�color,�I�still�looked�like�a�fat,�white,�bald�guy�in�glasses."I�see�you�in�something�sleek�and�intellectual,"�the�consultant�said."You�mean�like�a�Lexus�with�a�Harvard�sticker?"�I�said�.�.�.�.�(1998,�p.�F1)Brights,�Quips,�and�other�Humorous�Short�ItemsMuch�humor�published�in�U.S.�newspapers,�magazines,�and�newsletters�takes�the�form�of�short,�brief�stories�that�fit�in�various�places�throughout�the�publication.�Some�newspapers�like�to�run�front�pagePage�396one�line�chuckles�or�quips�and�editorial�page�one�paragraph�funny�stories.�Other�publications�incorporate�such�short�humorous�material�into�regular�news�or�columns.�These�are�collectively�referred�to�as�brights.Some�publications�simply�use�these�funny�feature�articles�as�fill�material�when�it�is�needed�to�complete�a�page�or�fill�a�specific�space.�Magazines,�such�as�Reader's�Digest,�use�regular�humor�features�that�are�collections�of�brights�about�different�aspects�of�daily�life.�And�they're�very�popular.�Research�at�Reader's�Digest�shows�these�sections�are�among�the�most�popular�in�the�entire�magazine.�They�can�be�lucrative�also~�Reader's�Digest�pays�$400�for�brights�and�other�published�short�articles.�These�brights�are�typically�amusing�stories�that�offer,�as�Williamson�(1975)�defined�them,�"a�humorous�and�unusual�quirk"�(p.�117).�These�items�can�come�from�reporters�on�the�police�beat,�the�courts,�meetings,�or�from�callers
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