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.They assessedsomeone s understanding of Confucian interpretations ofliterature and philosophy.The examinations, culminating in thechin shih, required a thorough knowledge of the ConfucianClassics, as well as advanced skills such as the ability to compose Social Reinforcement of Confucian Values 103prose and poetry.Was this any way to put together a civil serviceexamination to test for government jobs? The system was, infact, used over a period of some 1,400 years, and although noone would argue that it didn t have certain problems, it actuallyproduced a very large number of highly qualified civil servants,ministers of state, and educational administrators.WOMEN S LEARNING DOMESTIC MORALITYAlthough women were excluded from the formal path to successoffered to men by way of the civil service examination system,the education available to them was regarded as a very impor-tant aspect of Confucianism.Despite the fact that, for much ofthe history of Confucianism, the tradition generally saw fit tosubject women to a position inferior to that of men, this did notminimize the importance attributed to learning for women.Because Confucians believed that learning was important forall people, a tradition of education for women was established bythe Han Dynasty.An important writing by the prominent femaleConfucian Pan Chao during the Han period, the Nü Chieh, or Commandments for Women, was addressed to Pan Chao sdaughters.It sought to introduce the moral responsibilities ofwomen, arguing the importance of the Three Obediences andFour Virtues as the foundation for how women should live.Eventhough women were considered inferior to men, Confucianismsuggested a balance of yin and yang, or male and female, whichemphasized that each sex was equally important to the harmonyof the world.On the basis of Pan Chao s work, others appeared: the Nühsiao ching, or Book of Filial Piety for Women ; Nü lun yü, or Analects for Women ; Nei hsün, or Instructions for the InnerQuarters ; and Nü-fan chieh lu, or A Concise Account of BasicRegulations for Women. Eventually, four of these works werecombined into the Nü-ssu-shu, or Four Books for Women, which was created as a counterpart to the Four Books, thestandard for the education of men.The Ssu-shu was organizedby the great Sung Neo-Confucian Chu Hsi. 104 CONFUCIANISMWOMEN S EDUCATIONA number of works were written that focused specifically on theeducation of women.They introduced women to basic Confucianteachings and values in a world still dominated by men.Thus, thevirtues referred to in the following writing must be viewed as veryold-fashioned ways of discussing the role of women, and they cer-tainly suggest subservience to the male.On the other hand, theyalso reveal the degree to which education was being made availableto women and the extent to which women were thought capableof perfecting their moral natures just as men were.This particularpassage comes from a work called Nei hsün, Instructions for the InnerQuarters, a work composed by the Empress Hsü, wife of the thirdMing Dynasty Emperor Cheng Tzu (who ruled 1402 1424).Theaim of the work was to provide women with a guide to learning tocultivate their moral natures.Being upright and modest, reserved and quiet, correct anddignified, sincere and honest: these constitute the moralnature of a woman.Being filial and respectful, humane andperspicacious, loving and warm, meek and gentle: theserepresent the complete development of the moral nature.The moral nature being innate in our endowment, it becomestransformed and fulfilled through practice.It is not some-thing that comes from outside but is actually rooted in ourvery selves.Of old, upright women ordered their feelings andnature based upon moral principle (li), kept control overthe workings of their mind, and honored the Way andits virtue.Therefore they were able to complement theirgentlemen [husbands] in fulfilling the teachings of the Way
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